Hydrogen Peroxide

Hydrogen Peroxide is a highly reactive chemical made of hydrogen and oxygen. This chemical is widely used to bleach paper and textile, and is used as a disinfectant in the medical field and in the household and is also the main ingredient used to whiten your teeth. Normal concentrations are around 3% and can go as high as 10%. In general, the more peroxide, the greater the whitening power.

The Side Effects

Because Hydrogen peroxide is such a highly reactive chemical the two most common side effects are mouth and gum irritation plus increased tooth sensitivity to temperature changes, however both effects are temporary. Hydrogen peroxide works so well because it can easily pass through your teeth enamel and begin interacting with the dentine and pulp part of your tooth. Studies have shown that this does not harm or effect the enamel part of your tooth and is considered safe by the ADA.

Carbamide Peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide and Carbamide peroxide should not be confused as they are very different from each other. Hydrogen is a much faster reacting chemical and has a very short shelf life. When mixed with oxygen and saliva, hydrogen peroxide breaks down very quickly leading to shorted teeth whitening sessions. Carbamide Peroxide was invented to slow down the process of decomposition so that the peroxide would last longer and provide teeth whitening greater effects, as well as have a longer shelf life.

What It Doesn't Effect

Hydrogen Peroxide cannot change the color of fillings, porcelain teeth, ceramic teeth, gold teeth or other restorative materials because the hydrogen cannot penetrate the surface layers of these materials. However it can effect more porous dental work such as cements, and dental amalgams, but the effect can be negative by making them softer or more soluble.

Hydrogen Generator and Run Your Car on Water

My daughter and I built a hydrogen generator for under $125.00 and with materials we found at the hardware store. We have cut our gas bills in half by installing this hydrogen generator on our car and now use water for gas.

Actually, it supplements regular gasoline and increases the efficiency at which the fuel burns, drastically increasing gas mileage.

To build a hydrogen generator takes an in-depth guide to do safely and accurately but the basic concept is you install a small container in the engine compartment, fill it with water and a little baking soda, hit it with electricity delivered from the battery and the water molecules break up into what is know as Brown's gas.

This gas then uses the engines vacuum to suck it into the air manifold and into the engine where it combines with regular gasoline and combust more completely.

You do not have to make alterations to your engine or car's computer and it works on both carburetor and fuel injection systems.

By adding a fuel line heater and a device that tricks the oxygen sensor into believing you are still getting lousy gas mileage, you can increase your gas mileage by 50-100%!

Fuel prices are not going to go down anytime soon so you need to get your hands on the plans to build your own hydrogen generator. Like I said, it's inexpensive and the parts you need are readily available.

Thousands of people have converted their cars to run on water and are achieving amazing results.

Not only are they getting better gas mileage, their cars are actually running smoother and quieter, extending engine life.

This technology has been around for years and is proven safe and effective. You can build and install a hydrogen generator in a weekend and run your car on water to!

Understanding Hydrogenated Oils and Trans Fats

Over the last decade, there has been a lot of press about the negative effects of hydrogenated oils and trans-fats, which recently led to New York City passing the first law to ban the use of hydrogenated oils in restaurants. Yet even with all the negative publicity about hydrogenated oils, few people actively avoid consuming them and only a very small percentage of people really understand what they are and why they are harmful.
This article is designed to explain the major differences between good and bad fats and take the mystery out hydrogenated oils and trans-fats. It also explains how eliminating hydrogenated oils from your nutritional program will improve your long-term health and fat loss. However, before getting to hydrogenated oils, I will cover some basic scientific information about fats that is necessary to fully understand why some fats are good and hydrogenated oils are bad.
The structure of fats: The main part of a fat molecule is made up of carbon atoms chained together with hydrogen atoms attached to their sides. When all of the carbon atoms have hydrogen atoms attached to both sides, they form a saturated fat. If one hydrogen atom is missing, the fat is monounsaturated and fats with multiple hydrogen atoms missing are called polyunsaturated.
This by itself is not too important, but whenever a hydrogen atom is missing (unsaturated), there will be a double bond between the carbon atoms instead of the usual single bond. You may be wondering why this is significant, but understanding the double bonds is the key to understanding hydrogenated fats and fats in general.
The double bond between carbon atoms along with the missing hydrogen atom allows the fat molecule to be more versatile and becomes useable for various physiological reactions throughout the body. Fats with double bonds have many beneficial effects, such as improving your immune system, heart health, mood, skin, energy, nutrient absorption, and much more.
Some fats are more beneficial than others and generally the more double bonds the fat contains, the more positively it will affect your body. Probably the most well known beneficial fats are the Omega-3 oils found in fatty fish, which have either 5 or 6 double bonds. On the down side, fats with more double bonds are also more fragile and susceptible to physical manipulations. The importance of this will become apparent when you read about hydrogenation.
Saturated fats (no double bonds) on the other hand can only be used as energy for the body and cannot be used in the cellular reactions that create the beneficial effects listed above. In addition any extra saturated not needed for energy will be stored as fat. There is however one benefit to saturated fats: they are very durable and are highly resistant to physical alterations.
Hydrogenation is a manufacturing process used to alter unsaturated fats, generally to increase the shelf life of packaged products. This change is achieved by altering unsaturated fats at the point of their double bond(s). Unsaturated oils can either be completely hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated and each process affects fats differently. It is also important to note that saturated fats cannot be hydrogenated, because they have no double bonds or missing hydrogen atoms.
When an unsaturated fat is completely hydrogenated, it essentially becomes a saturated fat. Unfortunately there are also some additional unnatural compounds created during the process that are not found in natural saturated fats. After this process, the fat will have almost an indefinite shelf life, although it loses all any health benefits associated with the original fat.
Completely hydrogenated fats are generally only used with fats that are almost completely saturated to begin with and they are less common than partially hydrogenated fats. This is unfortunate, because contrary to how the name sounds completely hydrogenated fats are actually less unhealthy than partially hydrogenated ones.
As the name implies, partially hydrogenated fats do not undergo the full hydrogenation process. This means the fat does not end up resembling a saturated fat and there are even more unnatural compounds produced during this process than full hydrogenation. In addition, permanent damage is done to the double bonds that change their properties from healthy to unhealthy.
Bear with me for just a little bit more science, because this is what the previous information has been leading up to. When double bonds are in their natural occurring state, they are in a "cis" configuration. You don't have to remember this, but you do need to know that during hydrogenation the "cis" configuration gets altered into a "trans" configuration. In other words, hydrogenation turns healthy unsaturated fats into unhealthy trans-fats.
In the past it was believed that saturated fats were the unhealthiest fats, but in recent years trans-fats have taken over that title. It is important to note that since trans-fats are created by altering unsaturated fats, you will never find trans-fats in saturated fats or completely hydrogenated fats. Also, healthier fats with many double bonds are easier to corrupt during the hydrogenation process.
I hope you feel somewhat comfortable with the science behind fats, because it helps explain why trans-fats are so unhealthy. As previously discussed, unsaturated fats are used in many beneficial chemical reactions throughout the body and the double bonds are key to these reactions. Trans-fats maintain the appearance of a healthy unsaturated fat and the body can't tell the difference between them. Unfortunately, there is a big difference in the way they function.
When your body tries to use the trans-fats in necessary physiological reactions, they will not be effective. Trans-fats essentially stop the beneficial reactions from taking place, which can affect virtually every important system within your body. Some of the many negative effects include: impairing heart performance, weakening your immune system, weakening the protective barrier around cells, and disrupting the function of essential fats.
Now that you have read the science, here is some additional practical information to help you limit your consumption of trans-fats. While it is true that partially hydrogenated oil is a major source of trans-fat, it is not the only one. Simply exposing unsaturated oils to high temperatures, such as when frying food, will alter double bonds and create trans-fats. Since fats with many double bonds are quite fragile, they can be turned into trans-fats at much lower temperatures than fats with only 1 double bond (monounsaturated).

Modern HVAC Systems

Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems help to regulate the climate and maintain the indoor air quality of homes and commercial buildings. While sophisticated and reliable HVAC systems have become common in daily modern life, they have not always been so widespread. However, the principles that these systems operate on have long been known to scientists and engineers. Even though advances in the reliability and cost effectiveness of HVAC systems continue to improve, we enjoy very mature technology from this industry segment today.
The modern air conditioning system has been in continual development since its invention in 1902 by Willis Haviland Carrier. The system that Carrier invented was used in a printing plant to regulate the temperature and humidity of the air, thus causing the process used there to operate more consistently and reliably. Thereafter, the demand for commercial air conditioning exploded and Carrier formed his own company. It was not until the 1950s, however, that residential air conditioning became wide spread.
Because many early air conditioning systems used toxic and flammable gases to produce cooling, their utility was limited, so in 1228, Thomas Midgley, Jr invented the first chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) for use in refrigeration systems. This became popularly known by the DuPont brand name Freon, and it greatly enhanced the safety and reliability of refrigeration and air conditioning systems. However, in the 1970s scientific studies were starting to show that the release of CFCs into the air was depleting ozone levels in the stratosphere, resulting in higher incidence of harmful solar ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth's surface. Because of government action, the use of all CFCs and related chemicals have been restricted and are expected to be completely phased out by 2010. Newer non-ozone-depleting refrigerants have been developed and are being phased into HVAC systems currently available on the market.
Our understanding of properly engineered HVAC systems was further advanced after the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a report in 1984 on Sick Building Syndrome (SBS). SBS was found to result from poor indoor air quality, and several solutions have since been developed to prevent this condition from developing. Proper maintenance guidelines for HVAC systems can help to prevent SBS; additionally, the use of an air-to-air heat exchanger can be employed to increase the amount of fresh outdoor air that is brought into a building without sacrificing energy efficiency. The current recommendation from American Society of Heating, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning Engineers is to provide 8.4 exchanges of air within a 24-hour period.
With increasing costs for energy a primary focus, continued research today is improving the energy economy of HVAC systems. In an effort to reduce the ecological impact of new and existing building design, the U.S. Green Building Council promotes adherence to a set of guidelines known as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEEDS). Energy efficient HVAC systems are an important component to the success of the implementation of LEEDS standards.
Today we enjoy safe, efficient, and reliable HVAC technology. As an essential part of our daily lives, these systems will continue to be adapted to our changing needs by today's graduating scientists and engineers.

Polyetheretherketone

Polymerization generally involves the combination of simple, single, small units of chemical compounds also known as monomer under the appropriate conditions of high temperature and pressure as applicable to produce a larger, complex in structure compound known as the polymer in which the monomer units are linked together by a strong chemical bond. A typical example of a polymer is the common polyethylene that is made by the polymerization of single unit of ethene under a very high condition of temperature and pressure. Polymers have their uses as they are usually preferred for certain chemical applications over their corresponding monomers. Nevertheless, one major disadvantage of polymers is inherent in their non-biodegradable nature as they can be serious environment pollutants if not well managed. Other important polymers with industrial significances include Polyetheretherketone, polystyrene, polyamide and others.

Polyetheretherketone also known as PEEK is one of the wonderful works of polymer chemistry. To be more detailed, it actually a polymer product with distinguishing features of mostly industrial importance. This polymer is basically a colorless organic thermoplastic that is used for varying engineering constructions and plastic applications. With a conspicuous resistance to chemical and weariness environment coupled with promising thermal stability, it is an excellent material for various manufacturing thermoplastic applications.

Polyetheretherketone is a very useful polymer that is also used as reinforcements in mechanical construction. The reason these features are so unique is the fact that its polymerization process is more extensive and different from other simple methods as it involves a step by step polymerization of bisphenolate salts by dialkylation. Because of its robust nature, it is used in making bearings, piston compression valves and cable insulation. With the volatile, confused market of today, care must however be taken to ensure that you buy the original polymer in order to achieve these results.

Chemistry - Alkenes to Alkanes

Simple Organic Compounds Containing Carbon, Hydrocarbons With Functional Groups

Carbon (C) is present in most compounds, both inorganic and organic. Carbon is fairly unreactive, but at high temperatures is forms compounds with hydrogen, oxygen and various metals. Carbon is the only element with the ability to form chains and cyclical compounds of carbon atoms that line up next to each other in various lengths. This makes carbon the basis of organic chemistry. Thanks to carbon, more than 10 million known organisms survive, even thrive, on this Earth. In addition, there are around 200,000 known inorganic compounds which contain carbon.

Carbon is an important rock-forming mineral, forming carbonates. As carbon dioxide (CO2), it can dissolve in water and is also found in the atmosphere. It is an important component of all plants and animals, of all living organisms. Those organisms which died in the early years of our planet's history have helped to create a huge supply of carbon and carbon-based fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas.

In organic material which contains carbon, its atoms are bonded together in simple, single bonds (in saturated compounds) or in double and triple bonds (in unsaturated compounds). Carbon chains are the result. The sites which are not used for direct carbon-to-carbon bonding can be used for bonds with hydrogen (hydrocarbons) or with other elements.

According to the type of carbon chain present, we can differentiate between compounds with open chains (linear or branched - aliphatic or acyclic) and cyclic compounds. Aliphatic compounds are categorised in the ranks of branched carbon-containing compounds. Cyclical carbon-containing compounds are distinguished by their carbon atoms being arranged in a circle, in a closed cycle. Of these, the most important are aromatic carbon compounds, beginning with the founding member of the aromatic compounds, benzene (C6H6). In it, carbon atoms form a circle together, with the individual bonds between them showing both single and double bond character, a sort of hybrid between the two. Some of the more important organic compounds are fats, proteins and hydrocarbons.

Propane

Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but compressible to a transportable liquid. Aby-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel forengines, oxy-gas torches, barbecues, portable stoves and residential central heating.

A mixture of propane and butane, used mainly as vehicle fuel, is commonly known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas). It may also contain small amounts of propylene and/orbutylene. An odorant such as ethanethiol or thiophene is added so that people can easily smell the gas in case of a leak.

Properties and reactions

Propane undergoes combustion reactions in a similar fashion to other alkanes. In the presence of excess oxygen, propane burns to form water and carbon dioxide.

C₃H₈ + 5 O₂ → 3 CO₂ + 4 H₂O + heat

propane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

When not enough oxygen is present for complete combustion, incomplete combustion occurs when propane burns and forms water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and carbon.

2 C₃H₈ + 7 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 2 CO + 2 C + 8 H₂O + heat

Propane + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Carbon monoxide + Carbon + Water

Unlike natural gas, propane is heavier than air (1.5 times as dense). In its raw state, propane sinks and pools at the floor. Liquid propane will flash to a vapor at atmospheric pressure and appears white due to moisture condensing from the air.

When properly combusted, propane produces about 50 MJ/kg. The gross heat of combustion of one normal cubic meter of propane is around 91 megajoules^[10]

Propane is nontoxic; however, when abused as an inhalant it poses a mild asphyxiation risk through oxygen deprivation. Commercial products contain hydrocarbons beyond propane, which may increase risk. Commonly stored under pressure at room temperature, propane and its mixtures expand and cool when released and may cause mild frostbite.

Propane combustion is much cleaner than gasoline combustion, though not as clean as natural gas combustion. The presence of C–C bonds, plus the multiple bonds of propylene and butylene, create organic exhausts besides carbon dioxide and water vapor during typical combustion. These bonds also cause propane to burn with a visible flame.

Greenhouse gas emissions factors for propane are 62.7 kg CO₂/ mBTU or 1.55 kg of CO₂ per liter or 73.7 kg/GJ

ethene (C2H4)

Also known as ethylene, the first member of the alkene family ofhydrocarbons. Ethene is a colorless, flammable gas, with a slightly sweetsmell. It burns in air with a luminous flame and forms an explosive mixture with pure oxygen. It combines directly with the halogens, e.g., with chlorineto form 1,2-dichloroethane. With hydrogen it forms ethane. 

Ethene is made by cracking hydrocarbons (notably ethane and propane) from petroleum and is an important raw material for making other organic chemicals, including ethanal, ethanol, ethyl chloride, diethyl ether, and ethane-1,2-diol. It can be polymerized to make polyethene. It is oxidized by air over a silver catalyst to ethylene oxide, a reactive gas used as a fumigant and to make plastics and emulsifiers, and hydrated to ethylene glycol. 

Ethene occurs naturally in plants, in which it serves as a growth substance. It is well known for its ability to stimulate the ripening of fruits.

molecular weight	28.08
melting point	-169.4°C
boiling point	-103.7°C